Environmental effects of shipping

The environmental effects of shipping include air pollution, water pollution, acoustic, and oil pollution.^[1] Ships are responsible for more than 18% of nitrogen oxides pollution,^[2] and 3% of greenhouse gas emissions.^[3]

Although ships are the most energy-efficient method to move a given mass of cargo a given distance, the sheer size of the industry means that it has a significant effect on the environment.^[4] The annual increasing amount of shipping overwhelms gains in efficiency, such as from slow-steaming. The growth in tonne-kilometers of sea shipment has averaged 4 percent yearly since the 1990s,^[5] and it has grown by a factor of 5 since the 1970s.^{[citation needed]}

The fact that shipping enjoys substantial tax privileges has contributed to the growing emissions.^[6]^[7]^[8]

^ Walker TR, Adebambo O, Del Aguila Feijoo MC, Elhaimer E, Hossain T, Edwards SJ, Morrison CE, Romo J, Sharma N, Taylor S, Zomorodi S (2019). "Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation". World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation. pp. 505–530. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00030-9. ISBN 978-0-12-805052-1. S2CID 135422637.
^ Cite error: The named reference Schrooten1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Kaminski, Isabella (22 June 2023). "Climate impact of shipping under growing scrutiny ahead of key meeting". The Guardian.
^ Rahim MM, Islam MT, Kuruppu S (2016). "Regulating global shipping corporations' accountability for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the seas". Marine Policy. 69: 159–170. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.018.
^ High Seas, High Stakes, Final Report. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Univ. of Manchester, UK. 2014.
^ "Fuel charges in international aviation and shipping: How high; how; and why?". World Bank Blogs. World Bank. 17 April 2013.
^ "Fuel taxation". Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
^ Keen, Michael; Parry, Ian; Strand, Jon (9 September 2014). "The (non-) taxation of international aviation and maritime fuels: Anomalies and possibilities". VoxEU. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.

[Walker_et_al_2019_Environmental_Effects_of_Marine_Transportation-1] Walker TR, Adebambo O, Del Aguila Feijoo MC, Elhaimer E, Hossain T, Edwards SJ, Morrison CE, Romo J, Sharma N, Taylor S, Zomorodi S (2019). "Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation". World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation. pp. 505–530. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00030-9. ISBN 978-0-12-805052-1. S2CID 135422637.

[Schrooten1-2] Cite error: The named reference Schrooten1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[3] Kaminski, Isabella (22 June 2023). "Climate impact of shipping under growing scrutiny ahead of key meeting". The Guardian.

[regulating1-4] Rahim MM, Islam MT, Kuruppu S (2016). "Regulating global shipping corporations' accountability for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the seas". Marine Policy. 69: 159–170. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.018.

[Tyndall-5] High Seas, High Stakes, Final Report. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Univ. of Manchester, UK. 2014.

[6] "Fuel charges in international aviation and shipping: How high; how; and why?". World Bank Blogs. World Bank. 17 April 2013.

[7] "Fuel taxation". Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.

[8] Keen, Michael; Parry, Ian; Strand, Jon (9 September 2014). "The (non-) taxation of international aviation and maritime fuels: Anomalies and possibilities". VoxEU. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.

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